Measurement by acoustic techniques
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Gas ultrasonic flowmeters are widely used in natural gas measurement. In order to achieve high accuracy, it is meaningful to study interaction mechanism between flow field and acoustic field. In this study, effects of non-ideal flow on ultrasonic propagation are discussed. Firstly, a flow-acoustic coupling model is established based on COMSOL and its feasibility is verified by experiments. In order to be more in line with actual working condition, flow field is obtained by CFD simulation instead of theoretical formula calculation. Secondly, with this method, two typical non-ideal flows which often exist in real application are mainly analysed, including vortices near transducers and bend flows. The acoustic trajectory offsets, transit time, sound pressure and measurement errors are compared with results of ideal flow field. It is shown that errors will increase 10% caused by vortices near transducers, and increase 13% caused by bend flows. Besides, when passing through vortices near transducers with negative flow, trajectory offsets are opposite to flow direction. Finally, some suggestions for flowmeter design are proposed to improve measurement performance of gas ultrasonic flowmeter.
Speckle noise is one of the major artefacts in ultrasound images. The denoising faces the trade-off between noise suppression and structural preservation. In this study, multiscale adaptive regularisation Savitzky–Golay (MARSG) method, the new filter for removing speckle noise, is proposed. The proposed method combines the benefit of the multiscale analysis and the outstanding noise removing capability of Savitzky–Golay (SG) filter. The Laplacian pyramid is employed to separate an image into the noise, texture and object layers. Adaptive regularisation Savitzky–Golay (ARSG) filter is developed as the denoising filter in the noise and the texture layers. The denoising of the ARSG filter is adaptively adjusted in order to preserve the edges of objects in the image. The experiments on the synthetic and ultrasound images demonstrated that MARSG method offered better balance between noise removal and structural preservation than non-linear multiscale wavelet diffusion, feature-enhanced speckle reduction and regularised SG filter.
The detection method of partial discharge (PD) ultrasonic array signals is a new method that applies array sensors and array signals process technique to the PD detection. Moreover, the technique has high signal-to-noise ratio and high reliability. Compared with a full array sensor, degree reduction array sensor is a sparse array detection system, which has advantages of simple structure, low cost, and meeting most needs of engineering. However, these existed degree reduction algorithms of sparse optimal design are relatively complicated, affecting the success rate and the accuracy of detection. Therefore, this study proposes a method, which is the optimal design of the PD ultrasonic array sensor based on genetic algorithm dimension reduction technique. First, a two-dimensional (2D) plane circular array search is changed into a corresponding 1D linear search, and the genetic algorithm performs the linear search. Then, a circular array structure is restored to calculate the array performance. Finally, an optimal sparse structure of the circular PD ultrasonic array sensor is obtained under multiple constraints. The simulated results and the experimental studies are carried out to verify the validity and effectiveness of the proposed approach.
Ultrasonic flowmeters have potential for wide application in natural gas and hydrogen flow measurements in China. Accurate measurement is essential; thus, data fusion of acoustic paths is of importance. A data integration method for multi-path flowmeter measurement is introduced and investigated in this study. The novel data integration method is based on the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. Computational fluid dynamics has been used to simulate the flows, and a laboratory scale system was established to obtain experimental measurements. The results of the simulations and experiments reveal that the method is able to reduce measurement error compared with four traditional integration methods in flow-rate measuring in a long straight pipe. Furthermore, both the simulation and experiment results validate the integration method for non-ideal flow conditions, such as flow downstream a single elbow or a 180° bend. The relative errors are within 1%, instead of more than 2%, which is typical for traditional methods.
Multiple Helmholtz resonance apertures are proposed to enhance the output pressure of air-coupled capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) for non-contact ultrasound imaging applications. The methodologies of defining the design parameters of CMUTs and the resonant apertures on the membrane of CMUTs are discussed. In comparing certain configurations of resonant apertures with conventional CMUTs, simulation results show that a prospective improvement of output pressure (up to 32.1%) can be achieved.
A review of vibration signal estimation techniques employed in ultrasonic vibration measurement systems is presented. The review focuses on the Doppler signal extraction methods including the theory and analysis pertaining to the background of ultrasonic vibration measurement techniques. The phase modulated received signal in the vibration measurement system involves constant phase shift because of ultrasonic path length, phase shift introduced by Doppler effect because of vibrating object and the parametric phase shift caused by interaction of high frequency ultrasonic wave and low pressure developed by vibrating object. Among the three phase shifts, the Doppler phase shift contains the vibrating signal information and the extraction of Doppler signal helps in knowing the velocity of the vibrating object, amplitude and phase of the vibration. Various techniques of Doppler phase shift retrieval are categorised based on the modulation index estimation procedures from the received ultrasonic signal. An analysis is made based on the information retrieval methods for estimation of vibration signal parameters, range of the vibration amplitude, frequency and the preferable carrier frequency for transmission. Further, the analysis also presents various applications in which ultrasonic vibration measurements system are employed successfully.
Stress and residual stress are two crucial factors which play important roles in mechanical performance of materials, including fatigue and creep, hence measuring them is highly in demand. Pulse eddy current (PEC) and ultrasonic testing (UT) are two non-destructive tests (NDT) which are nominated to measure stresses and residual stresses by numerous scholars. However, both techniques suffer from lack of accuracy and reliability. One technique to tackle these challenges is data fusion, which has numerous approaches. This study introduces a promising one called neural network data fusion, which shows effective performance. First, stresses are simulated in an aluminium alloy 2024 specimen and then PEC and UT signals related to stresses are acquired and processed. Afterward, useful information obtained is fused using artificial neural network procedure and stresses are estimated by fused data. Finally, the accuracy of fused data are compared with PEC and UT information and results show the capability of neural network data fusion to improve stress measurement accuracy.
An optimised synthesis method for designing an extreme sparse array with the minimum set of elements is proposed. The method is based on a cross-array configuration and a multi-frequency beamforming algorithm. The experimental results show that the extreme sparse array achieves a 98.9% element thinning compared with the fully sampled planar array and the generated beam pattern satisfies the presupposed constraints. This is much better than the results obtained in the previous literature.
Guided wave has been utilised in various manners for non-destructive evaluation and testing. The dispersion and attenuation characteristics of guided wave restrict and complicate the accurate estimation of echo propagation distance. The study focuses on how to reduce the estimation error of propagation distance caused by these characteristics. The propagation of guided wave with attenuation and dispersion characteristics is analytically modelled in general cases. The flight-time compensation technique is developed based on the analytical model of wave propagation and the algorithm of chirplet matching pursuit. Numerical simulations are given to verify the efficacy of the developed compensation method. Finally, this study demonstrates the use of experimentally measured data for echoes identification and propagation distance estimation.
Ultrasonic defect detector which is based on linear ultrasonic technology has been widely applied in structural health monitoring now. However, its detection sensitivity is not high enough. Nonlinear ultrasonic method was proposed to improve it. On the other hand, fiber Bragg grating technology is being developed rapidly in sensing field and it has great advantage in distributed measurement. In this paper, a new system which combined nonlinear ultrasonic and fiber Bragg grating was built. The influences of some important parameters were discussed. The results proved the system can detect defect effectively and can realize distributed measurement easily.
The quality of focusing in high-frequency ultrasound imaging is significantly affected by the length of the depth of field (DOF). A dual-concentric transducer combined with a phase-apodisation scheme is presented to achieve the extended DOF maintaining signal-to-noise ratio. As a preliminary study, computational simulation by using a Field-II program is conducted to demonstrate the feasibility. A dual-concentric transducer is composed of a disc- and a ring-type element with confocal apertures. When two input signals with 0° and 180° phases are simultaneously applied to the inner and outer elements, a bifocal-zone is generated in the axial direction. The overall − 6 dB DOF is 40% longer compared with a single element transducer. Thus, the proposed scheme can be a potential approach to increase the DOF for high-frequency ultrasound imaging.
Many ultrasonic sensors intended for non-destructive testing include a plastic or metal element, known as buffer rod, between the ultrasonic transducer and the material under analysis. Buffer rods are often terminated in the form of a conical tip for ultrasonic inspection of liquid-like substances. The conical tip is carefully shaped in a 45° angle to favour the in phase reception of all the components of the ultrasonic wave reflected at the buffer tip, obtaining thus a maximum amplitude measurement signal. The effect of the buffer rod cone angle on measurement signals is studied in this work. A straightforward approximate formula for the effect of the error angle on measurement signal amplitude is used. Simulations are performed using a two-dimensional finite differences tool. Measurements are conducted with the same operating conditions and buffer rod materials and dimensions as those defined for both approximate formula evaluation and simulations. Thus, a comparison of the approximate formula, simulation and measurement results are established. Furthermore, the significance of some parameters such as ultrasonic transducer operating frequency and diameter, and buffer rod material are also analysed. The obtained results show that significant loss of the measurement signal amplitude is found only for cone error angles beyond the range of usual machining errors.
Knowing the wind speed and direction in an electrical power generating wind farm is an important factor in its management. A measuring device for this function with no moving parts is desirable to reduce maintenance due to wear of the mechanical parts. Ultrasonic measuring techniques can be employed in such a device to fulfill this requirement by measuring the time it takes for a signal to propagate from an emitter to a receiver sensor. Wind in the direction of the sound wave, or against it will affect the travel time of the sound wave and the wind speed can be extracted from these Time Of Flight (TOF) measurements. Commonly used narrowband ultrasonic transducers have the disadvantage of generating a long oscillating signal where the start of the received signal has a very small amplitude and cannot be directly detected and flagged with a simple threshold circuit. The present paper describes a method where two signal bursts of different frequencies within the bandwidth of the transducers are used to obtain the TOF. The phase difference between the emitted and the received signal is measured at two frequencies and the results are then combined to give the TOF. The wind direction can be obtained with an additional measurement in the orthogonal direction by a second pair of sensors.
A comparison of methods for measuring time-of-flight (TOF) variations of ultrasonic waves travelling through food materials is presented. Six commonly used methods for the TOF determination were taken into account, four in the time domain and two in the frequency domain. First, methods were briefly described and then tested using simulated ultrasonic waves. Factors such as signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), attenuation and delay between signals are taken into consideration, whereas the root mean-squared error (RMSE) and execution time are used as parameters for comparison. Of the six methods, the one operating on the basis of phase shift proved to be the most robust and provided excellent levels of resolution and optimum performance across a wide range of SNR values. Experiments were subsequently conducted in a real process, which corroborated the results obtained during the theoretical study. The ability to accurately measure TOF variations of ultrasonic waves makes it possible to detect more precisely velocity variations, which is the most commonly used parameter to determine and acoustic monitor physicochemical changes and properties of food materials.
This paper presents an ultra-fast CMOS Data- Acquisition system. It has been developed predominately for use in Optical Scanning Acoustic Microscopy, and it is also applicable in RF transceiver systems. The key modules of this system include a sub- sampling sample-and-hold amplifier, and a pulse generator, which is based on a 2.6 GHz PLL with quadrature outputs and provides control signals for the SHA. The DAQ system is implemented in a standard 0.35 μm CMOS process, and achieves 10.2 G Sample/s sampling rate for the 80 MHz periodic laser input. (8 pages)
We describe a computation method of spontaneous Brillouin scattering process using a simple original acoustic mode analysis. Numerical results have been compared with measured Brillouin spectra for two different commercially available fibres. (2 pages)
A 2.4 GHz range surface acoustic wave (SAW)-based pressure sensor was fabricated on a 41° YX LiNbO3 substrate for a mechanical compression force measurement. For the first time, fabricated sensors were characterised wirelessly using the network analyser. Electron beam lithography was used for fine line patterning. Metal ground shielding was covered all over the cavity to reduce a coupling loss of the propagating SAW to the surrounding atmosphere. Equivalent circuit model and finite element methods were used to determine optimal design parameters. The three sharp peaks were obtained from three reflectors. As a mechanical force was applied to the piezoelectric diaphragm, the diaphragm was bended, resulting in the phase shifts of the reflected peaks. Obtained sensitivity was 2.9°/kPa.
An ultra-high distance resolution of a pinhole-based low-frequency air-coupled ultrasonic system beyond the diffraction limit is described. The high phase sensitivity of 40 kHz air-coupled ultrasonic wave signals is obtained when a distance between the pinhole and an object is small. Distance resolution of λ/900 000 (10 nm) with noncontact has been achieved using phase information of narrowband continuous ultrasonic waves.
A 2D ultrasound field imaging system that uses a CCD array to map the optical output of a planar Fabry-Perot polymer film sensing interferometer is described. This system enables ultrasound fields to be rapidly mapped over a 6.6×4.7 mm aperture with spatial and temporal resolutions of the order of 10 µm and 10 ns, respectively. The concept was successfully demonstrated by imaging the acoustic field at the focus of a pulsed 5 MHz PZT ultrasound transducer. The technique offers an alternative to piezoelectric-based methods for high-resolution biomedical and industrial ultrasonic imaging and field characterisation applications.
The article consists of a Powerpoint presentation on resonant acoustic profiling technology. The areas discussed include: components of RAP technology; antibody specificity; mouse IgG concentration analysis; IL-1β detection and interaction; serum detection; cell expression media; multi-protein complex formation; drug-enzyme profiling; kinetics of drug binding; bacteria detection; inflammatory marker; etc.