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Edited by two recognised experts, this book in two volumes provides a comprehensive overview of integrated optics, from modelling to fabrication, materials to integration platforms, and characterization techniques to applications. The technology is explored in detail, and set in a broad context that addresses a range of current and potential future research and development trends. Volume 1 begins with introductory chapters on the history of integrated optics technology, design tools, and modelling techniques. The next section of the book goes on to discuss the range of materials used for integrated optics, their deposition techniques, and their specific applications, including glasses, plasmonic nanostructures, SOI and SOS, and III-V and II-VI semiconductors. Volume 2 addresses characterization techniques, integrated optical waveguides and devices. A range of applications are also discussed, including devices for sensing, telecommunications, optical amplifiers and lasers, and quantum computing. The introductory chapters are intended to be of use to newcomers to the field, but its depth and breadth of coverage means that this book is also appropriate reading for early-career and senior researchers wishing to refresh their knowledge or keep up to date with recent developments in integrated optics.
The lateral diffusion length (L h) of minority carriers in LWIR InAs/GaSb superlattice detectors grown by metalorganic chemical vapour deposition was evaluated. The deeply-etched PNn device exhibits a diffusion-limited behaviour at 80 K, with a dark current density as low as 9.1 × 10−6 A/cm2 at −0.1 V and a 50% cut-off of 10.1 μm. In shallow-etched pixels with a common absorber, both the photo-current and the dark current show a size-dependent behaviour. L h deduced from the two methods are 211 and 251 μm, respectively, which are longer than those in superlattice materials grown by molecular beam epitaxy.
A technique to estimate an incoming radio frequency (RF) signal angle of arrival (AOA) irrespective of the RF signal amplitude is presented. It is based on measuring the DC voltage at the output of two modules where each of them consists of an optical modulator, an optical filter and a photodetector. An RF signal amplitude-independent AOA can be obtained from the ratio of the two DC voltages. Experimental results are presented that demonstrate 0°–63° AOA measurement with <3° errors for an RF signal with three different power levels of 3.2, −0.3 and −3.6 dBm into the modulator.
Terahertz (THz) detectors imaging is an attractive technology that has been widely adopted in various imaging applications, but the low response has always been a critical problem for THz detectors. Here, the authors present some antenna-coupled 2.58 THz detectors fabricated using 55 nm CMOS process technology for the terahertz wave detection well beyond the device cut-off frequency, each detector consists of a patch antenna and one or few short-channel metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect-transistors (MOSFETs). The authors demonstrated two drain-driven detectors different from the commonly used configurations, and proved that this structure can effectively improve the response to the quantum cascade laser. The output signal is extracted with a lock-in amplifier under room temperature.
The low energy germanium detector (LEGe) is in all aspects optimised for performance at low and moderate energies. It has specific advantages over conventional planar or coaxial detectors. LEGe is a kind of semiconductor detector commonly used in X-ray detection. It can display the spectrum of X-ray and record photon counts. Photon fluence is used to describe the radiation field by recording the number of incident photons. In order to take full advantage of the low energy response of this intrinsically thin window detector, LEGe cryostats are usually equipped with a beryllium window, thin front and side contact allowing spectroscopy from 3 keV and above. The rear contact is of less than full area which gives a lower detector capacitance compared to a planar device of similar size. It is widely used in low energy gamma spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, nuclear safeguards or X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and X-ray diffraction. Spectrum is an intuitional and accurate description of X-ray radiation. In this work, experiment was carried out to calibrate the detector and test the spectrum, and then to calculate the energy resolution. The experiment results about energy resolution (full width at half maximum) are 222 eV (@5.9 keV) and 519 eV (@122 keV).
A zero-biased Fermi-level managed barrier diode that was packaged with a WR-3 rectangular-waveguide-input port was developed. For direct (square-law) detection operations, the fabricated module exhibited a 3 dB bandwidth covering the whole WR-3 band. The intermediate frequency bandwidth in heterodyne detection was, therefore, dominated by the bandwidth of the integrated preamplifier, and it was measured to be about 40 GHz. The minimum noise-equivalent power obtained was as low as 7 × 10−18 W/Hz at around 300 GHz even with a very low local oscillator power of 30 μW.
The authors present an adaptive algorithm based on a non-linear regression model for mitigating time-varying etalon drifts in line-scanned optical absorption spectrometers. By dynamically varying the etalon spectral background using physically realistic degrees of freedom, the authors’ dynamic etalon fitting-routine (DEF-R) significantly increases the spectral baseline recalibration interval as compared to conventional fringe subtraction models. They provide an empirical demonstration of the efficacy of DEF-R using an on-chip 10 cm silicon waveguide for near-infrared methane absorption spectroscopy at 6057 cm−1, which suffers significant etalon spectral noise due to reflections and multi-path interference from stochastic line-edge roughness imperfections. They demonstrate the corresponding improvement in both spectral clean-up and long-term stability via Allan-variance analysis. For the sensor presented here, application of DEF-R enables Gaussian-noise limited performance for more than 102 s and provides almost an order-of-magnitude improvement in stability time with respect to conventional baseline subtraction. Although DEF-R is applied here to an on-chip sensor embodiment, they envision their technique to be applicable to any absorption sensor limited by time-varying etalon drifts.
An inductively coupled plasma etching process for delineation of InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice pixels is presented. An optimised etch recipe without alternate plasma cleaning step showed an etch rate as high as 0.11 μm/min that results in smooth vertical sidewalls for the type-II superlattice pixel arrays with 10 μm pitch size and 2.4 μm deep trenches. At 70 K, the dark current density for the mesa etched + SU-8 polymer passivated type-II superlattice photodiodes was found to be 0.11 A/cm2 at an applied reverse bias voltage of 0.2 V. The activation energy of 13 meV obtained from the Arrhenius plot and a variable area diode array technique showed that the measured dark current is mainly attributed to bulk tunnelling current. This technique of mesa delineation for the type-II superlattice pixel arrays with small pitch size is a viable option in realising next-generation infrared focal plane arrays.
A detailed study of the performance analysis of a low-cost PIN/heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) opto-electronic integated circuit (OEIC) is described. Measured and of 54 and 57 GHz for 10 × 10 µm2 HBTs were achieved for such a large emitter size. The base and collector regions of the transistor were utilised to form a PIN photodiode which has a dc responsivity and quantum efficiency of 0.5 A/W and 0.45, respectively, without antireflection coating at a wavelength of 1.55 µm. For both active devices, a model was realised taking all parasitic and physical-based impacts into account, for example, equivalent circuit of the pads surrounding the devices and transit delay time across the collector depletion region. The simulation results of the discrete passive and active elements showed good agreement with experimental measurements. The OEIC module was implemented in Keysight-advanced design system software with a three-stage preamplifier which has a transimpedance gain of 40 dB Ω and a −3 dB bandwidth of 18 GHz. This corresponds to a transimpedance-gain product of 1.8 THz. A series peaking inductor technique was used in the design, contributing to an enhancement in the opto-electrical bandwidth of >60%. The optical/electrical response offers a bandwidth of ∼15 GHz, adequate for up to 20 Gb/s data rate operation.
Following the enormous development of the fibre Bragg grating(s) (FBG) sensor technology in the recent years, different kinds of fibre optic sensors (FOS) with advanced faculties were designed and matured to sense various parameters, including temperature, radiation, rotation, strain, acceleration, vibration, humidity, refractive index (RI) and so on. In this chapter, we will detail and review the main applications of FBG sensors while putting focus on the communications field.
The waveguide gate-type mechanism on micro-channel plate substrate was .rstly put forward for the complex photo detection in Free space optical communication (FSO). Based on the losses of energy coupling between both Micro-channel plates (MCP), we further proposed waveguide gate-type complex detecting mechanism, which was veri.ed in electron optic system by vacuum testing. With the application of the complex detecting mechanism, the device performance has greatly improved, including higher space optical transfer and wider dynamic detecting range.
The authors propose a 2 × 2 asymmetric adiabatic coupler (AAC) indium phosphide (InP) photonic integrated circuit (PIC), suitable for tunable power applications such as all-optical data processing. The device was idealised as the key building block in Haar transform network used for image compression, allowing to perform the necessary separate addition and subtraction of incoming input signals at its output ports. The tunable behaviour of the coupler was demonstrated experimentally for addition/subtraction and splitting (with experimental coupling ratios of 77:23/14:86 and 50:50, respectively) through phase control. The use of the developed InP PIC enables a low footprint structure design together with the high-quality active components (lasers, photodetectors and phase modulators) of Fraunhofer Gesellschaft Heinrich Hertz Institute design toolkit. The proposed study provides a full experimental characterisation of the AAC, exploring its tuning properties and enabling further usage in a plethora of applications in high processing computing and data communications.
We present an ultra-compact graphene-on-plasmonic slot waveguide photodetector with active size of 90 nm × 100 nm × 6 μm, which shows a responsivity of 300 mA/W, a 1.5-dB bandwidth exceeding 70 GHz and 72 GBd high-data rate reception for communication band of 1550 nm.
We present the conception, a system simulation and an experimental validation of an innovative high-speed, high-resolution microwave photonics imaging system for security applications, working at microwave or millimetre frequencies and introducing single-shot and single-channel acquisition photonics technologies for real-time target detection.
Carrier-less coherent detection based on phase retrieval (PR) is demonstrated for optical higher-order modulation formats. The PR receiver based on a two-dimensional photodetector array and a discreteness-aware PR algorithm successfully demodulated 10-Gbaud optical 16QAM and OFDM signals without using any local lights or optical hybrids.
Electrically-pumped micro-ring lasers with azimuthal gratings were designed and fabricated using InAs/InAlGaAs/InP quantum-dot structures grown by MOCVD. Continuous-wave single-mode lasing covering 1300 nm to 1370 nm with SMSR over 40 dB was achieved. Tunable single-mode operation and on-chip integration with waveguide and SOA/photodetector are demonstrated.
Quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs) are receiving attention as next generation infrared photodetectors that offer high-sensitivity and high-temperature operation. The realisation of QDIPs on silicon (Si) substrates offer further great advantages in terms of cost reduction and higher-resolution focal plane arrays. Indium arsenide/gallium arsenide QDIPs grown directly on on-axis Si (100) substrates are demonstrated. These are expected to further reduce fabrication costs by utilising both the monolithic integration of QDIPs with Si readout integrated circuits and also the bare substrate cost (compared with offcut Si substrates). In the device, the peak detectivity at a temperature of 32 K is measured to be 5.8 × 107 cm Hz1/2/W of 6.2 μm at a bias 0.6 V, with a corresponding responsivity of 27 mA/W. This result indicates that QD structures directly grown on on-axis Si substrates are very promising for the realisation of high-performance QDIPs with low fabrication cost.
The article considers real-life ghost-hunters and asks the question: what equipment do paranormal investigators use in the real world, what does it do and is it any good? This includes using low-frequency infrasound, electromagnetic fields, and thermal imaging.
This study theoretically analyses the performance of multiple quantum well infrared photodetector mainly with the variation of active layer doping. However, the effect of temperature and applied bias has also been studied. Results show that the effect of doping on the responsivity is significant whereas on the dark current is less significant. Effect of temperature on the dark current is more significant compared with that of doping concentration. Moreover, concerning the detectivity of the device, choice of doping plays a significant role on the detector.
The fabrication process of a microparabolic reflector using isotropic xenon difluoride etching technique is presented and analysed through this work for developing infrared antenna-coupled detectors. Although many parametric studies described the behaviour of this process in the literature, the non-linearity of the process and its dramatic dependency on the pattern definition result in great difficulties when adopting the process for developing a particular structure. The main focus of this work is, therefore, to present a detailed etching analysis as dictated in the proposed design providing the proper etching recipe according to the proposed structure design and its associated masking pattern. Deep insights into the process have been highlighted suggesting the necessity of the process assessment in terms of evaluating the three-dimensional etched volume rather than the etched depth. This will potentially solve the non-linearity behaviour and the pattern dependency problem. The optimum etching recipe yields approximately a total volume of 0.354 mm3 through the proper patterning mask. The resultant parabolic cavities have and in their diameter and depth, respectively, as required for the proposed structure. The integration of a microparabolic reflector with such detectors will potentially enhance the specific detectivity of these detectors.