This chapter aims to answer two questions: First, why does it make sense to support Agri-PV diffusion? Second, what is the status quo of Agri-PV market development globally?

To answer the first question, basic knowledge, facts and trends in the different policy areas impacted by Agri-PV are outlined. This analysis gets to the heart of why it is reasonable for sustainable development to stimulate multifunctional and cross-cutting PV-solutions such as Agri-PV (or Floating-PV).

The second answer elucidates the genesis of Agri-PV between 1981 and today. Agri-PV pioneers from different regions of the world are introduced, some lighthouse projects are presented and an estimate on the current global Agri-PV market size is outlined.

The integration of agriculture and photovoltaics, commonly known as agrivoltaics, is a rapidly emerging field that has the potential to play an important role in a fully renewable energy system that is compatible with ecosystem restoration, nature conservation and agriculture. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the technological aspects of agrivoltaic systems, with a specific focus on the design and implementation of solar panels and sub-structures, as they are the main components differing from a standard PV installation. Further than this, special needs and developments in inverter design are showcased and challenges in the powerplant planning are discussed.

Agrivoltaic systems are designed to utilise the same land for both food production and energy generation, thereby increasing land use efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of both industries. Solar panels are a crucial component of these systems, as they convert sunlight into electricity.

The design and implementation of solar panels for agrivoltaics systems requires careful consideration of factors such as shading, orientation and tilt angle to ensure optimal performance. Emerging module technologies, such as transparent solar panels, are also being explored in agrivoltaics systems as they have the potential to further increase the potential symbiosis in agrivoltaics.

The sub-structure is a key component of agrivoltaics systems, as it provides the necessary support for the solar panels while also ensuring enough space for the growth of crops beneath. The design of the sub-structure is mainly driven by the type of agrivoltaic system and can be divided into the three categories named overhead agrivoltaic, interrow agrivoltaic or solar greenhouses. Factors such as wind loads, snow loads and the integration of agricultural subsystems as growing wires in fruitvoltaics, water irrigation systems or rainwater harvesting gutters, must be take into account in the design and construction of these sub-structures. Of course, the system layout of the Agri-PV park is also of importance, e.g. the pitch between PV rows allowing agricultural machinery to pass through according to the specific crop being grown, placement of transformer station, inverters, fencing, entrance and exit gates in the fence, or mobile roads during construction avoiding soil compaction. In this chapter, the technical details of these components and designs are presented, discussing the latest research and developments in the field. Also, the challenges and opportunities associated with the integration of agrivoltaics systems into existing agricultural operations will be examine. In addition, we will present case studies of successful agrivoltaics projects, providing a practical perspective on the implementation of this technology. Overall, this chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the technological aspects of photovoltaics in agrivoltaics systems, highlighting the potential of this innovative approach to addressing the challenges of food security and energy production. As the demand for sustainable land use and energy solutions continues to grow, the development and implementation of agrivoltaics technology will play an increasingly important role in shaping our future.

What crop species are suitable in agrivoltaic (Agri-PV or AV) systems? How do we perform rigorous crop yield assessment in AV systems? Are there really 'shade' species and 'sun' species? Is the shade of AV systems in winter and summer similar? Do annual crops, perennial crops and permanent pastures behave the same way in the shade of AV systems? What services could photovoltaic (PV) panels provide to crops that could help them to perform better, in particular when climate change is concerned? These are some of the questions that will be addressed in this chapter. The question of crop productivity in AV systems is central and deserves a careful approach. The equation is simple: if the crops are not profitable due to low yields or high production costs, the farmer will set aside, the system will no longer be an AV system, and the crop production will decrease. This is why crop productivity in AV systems is a central question. It's a matter of life and death for agrivoltaism, including with grazed systems or aquaculture systems. The PV panels productivity is not depending on the crops, but on the optimisation of the electrical part of the system (use the right orientation, tilting, spacing of the panel and many other specifications of the electrical system). Conversely, the crop productivity is a challenge and depends directly on the PV panels. Although the crop income is usually 10-100 times less than the electricity income per hectare, crops are a key component of AV systems. Growing crops in an AV system is a challenge; crops face shade that reduces photosynthesis and alter morphogenesis. But crops can also benefit from several services provided by the AV system. The balance between competition (mainly for light) and facilitation (through a modified microclimate) is key to understand the functioning of AV systems, in a similar way as it is in mixed cropping or agroforestry (AF) [1]. While competition (for light) is a compulsory feature of AV systems, facilitation (due to a modified microclimate) is an optional and stochastic one. Facilitation may happen or not. Competition (mainly for light, but also for water in some cases) always affect crops. The agronomical evaluation of AV systems can therefore only be probabilistic, and should include several years with climate variability. Long-term experiments are difficult and costly to manage. Using crop models may allow to explore more options of crop management in AV systems.

The purpose of this chapter is to focus on changes to operations and maintenance (O&M) practices or design changes that are needed for Agri-PV projects. Adopting Agri-PV projects will require changes to site O&M practices from conventional PV projects to accommodate farming practices on-site that come with potential contracting, legal, and health and safety regulatory changes. The focus of this chapter is to outline O&M operations at Agri-PV sites, including a comparison with O&M practices at conventional utility-scale solar sites. These comparisons will be relevant, but different, to both new Agri-PV project developments and retrofitting existing conventional PV sites to Agri-PV. This chapter starts with the impacts of different PV design choices on crop management, grazing, and vegetation management practices coupled with other relevant agricultural considerations. Next, this chapter discusses differences in site design and O&M that arise from incorporating crop production and grazing, along with potential impacts of these agricultural activities on PV systems. Finally, non-technical considerations of Agri-PV site management are discussed to ensure that these pieces are accounted for throughout the project life cycle.

This chapter will discuss cropping operations based on insights from four Agri-PV sites in the United States: Jack's Solar Garden in Longmont, CO; the Bifacial Agrivoltaic Research at NREL (BARN) site in Golden, CO; a demonstration site at the University of Massachusetts Amherst; and a demonstration site at the University of Arizona's Biosphere 2 facility near Tucson. All projects listed here are hand-harvested but small equipment and tractors are used for tilling, ploughing, and other farming activities.

This chapter presents a comprehensive analysis of the economic performance of agrivoltaic systems, examining their potential benefits, drawbacks, and the factors influencing their feasibility. By evaluating case studies, economic models, and policy implications, we aim to provide a clear understanding of the economic viability of agrivoltaics and its contribution to a more resilient and sustainable future.

In this chapter, we present a visionary outlook on the way forward for agrivoltaics. We derive this vision from the results contained in this book. Therefore, the first sub-chapter contains a summary of the key findings of the diverse explorations undertaken from Chapters 1 to 10. It describes the status quo of agrivoltaics and a distillation of our in-depth investigation into the realm of agrivoltaics. Then, as an interlude, the second sub-chapter revisits the debate on the definition of agrivoltaics. We contrast two positions: One from Christian Dupraz that is more in favor of a narrower definition and calls for restrictive quality criteria. And the other from Constantin Klyk and Stephan Schindele, which advocates a broader definition of agrivoltaics embracing as many agricultural activities as possible.

Guided by the knowledge and insights accumulated thus far, in the third sub-chapter, which is the closing chapter of this book, we extend our perspective toward the future, contemplating the potential trajectory of agrivoltaics. In order for the Agri-PV market segment to continue to grow and thrive healthily, it is essential that we are equipped with a robust knowledge base that supports a fact-based policy orientation, that we try to provide throughout the book. We highlight the role of leading industrialized countries and key-markets in agrivoltaics diffusion, present options to enhance sustainable land use and current research trends in agrivoltaics and describe where there is room for improvement in the diffusion of agrivoltaics worldwide.