Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage in Power Grids
Energy storage is key to integrating renewable power. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store power in the magnetic field in a superconducting coil. Once the coil is charged, the current will not stop and the energy can in theory be stored indefinitely. This technology avoids the need for lithium for batteries. The round-trip efficiency can be greater than 95%, but energy is needed for the cooling of the superconducting coil, and the material is expensive. So far, SMES systems are primarily used for improving power quality through short time storage, but further applications are being researched.
This concise treatise for researchers, including PhD students, involved with energy storage research at universities and in industry, experts at utilities and grid operators, as well as advanced students provides a hands-on overview of SMES technology. Chapters cover principles, control, power quality and transient stability enhancement, load frequency control, dynamic performance, use of AI with SMES, and cybersecurity case studies underpin the coverage.
Inspec keywords: power grids; distributed power generation; power generation control; superconducting magnets; superconducting magnet energy storage
Other keywords: superconducting magnet energy storage; superconducting magnets; power system transient stability; power grids; load regulation; power electronics; frequency control; power generation control; intelligent control; distributed power generation
Subjects: Superconducting coils and magnets; General electrical engineering topics; Storage in electrical energy; Other energy storage; General and management topics; Power system control; Conference proceedings; Control of electric power systems; Distributed power generation
- Book DOI: 10.1049/PBPO210E
- Chapter DOI: 10.1049/PBPO210E
- ISBN: 9781839535000
- e-ISBN: 9781839535017
- Page count: 290
- Format: PDF
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Front Matter
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1 Introduction
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Decarbonization is the term used for removal or reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) output into the atmosphere. Decarbonization has become a global imperative and a priority for governments, companies, and society at large, because it plays a very important role in limiting global warming. Many companies across all industries (e.g., in energy, transport, and consumer products) have publicly declared their intention to become carbon neutral by 2050 [1]. Carbon neutral (i.e., net zero) means that all greenhouse gas emissions produced are counterbalanced by an equal amount of emissions that are eliminated. Achieving this will require rapid decarbonization [2].
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2 Overview of SMES technology
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The central topic of this chapter is the presentation of energy storage technology using superconducting magnets. For the beginning, the concept of SMES is defined in 2.2, followed by the presentation of the component elements, as well as the types of geometries used in 2.3. Aspects of mechanical nature due to the Lorentz force occurring inside the superconducting coils are of particular importance in the proper functioning of the superconducting devices. For these reasons, these aspects have been carefully treated and accompanied by case studies for the calculation of the forces produced by the magnetic field for cylindrical and toroidal geometries. Section 2.3.3 presents a study of the calculation of forces produced by the magnetic field inside the cylindrical and toroidal superconducting coils. A case study on this topic is also described. The following section 2.4 contains elements of SMES dynamics, i.e. different methods of connecting an SMES to the network for different charge-discharge cycles. A numerical study case performed in Simulink® is presented. Section 2.5 deals with issues related to the nature of the materials from which the superconducting devices are made and also with the main cooling methods. Next, in 2.6 the material contains various applications of SMES such as storing energy from renewable sources, improving the parameters of transmission lines, electromagnetic launchers, superconducting cables, transformers, etc. In section 2.7 practical applications of SMES are presented .At the end of the chapter, in 2.8, a cost analysis of these devices is presented.
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3 Superconducting magnetic energy storage control methods
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This chapter deals with some basics of SMES and its control methodology. SMES is one of the most developing and efficient energy storage devices. The integration of SMES systems in the AC power microgrids under connected operation mode allows compensating active and reactive power dynamically, which clearly improves the grid performance in terms of power factor reducing at the same time the power oscillations produced by renewable generators. Different topologies of the VSC and CSC systems are explored. The different control methodologies for VSC and CSC are used to mitigate the variation in voltage and power for grid-connected systems using SMES.
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4 Transient stability enhancement of power grids by superconducting magnetic energy storage
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In this chapter, the proficiency of SMES technology in improving the transient stability of power grids anticipating the intermittent power outputs of wind energy sources is explored. The basic model architecture encompassing the inductor coil and the PCDU is described. The detailed mathematical modelling of various SMES control algorithms, viz. derivative SMES control, SMES contrived as VSG, discrete predictively controlled SMES based on a dynamic constrained window as well as neural network, intelligent fuzzy logic controlled SMES and a selective amalgamation of the said techniques is outlined. The chapter is supplemented by the time-domain simulations performed on the WSCC and the 18-machine, 70 bus system for various case studies.
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5 Enhancement of load frequency control in interconnected microgrids by SMES
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The increased penetration levels of various renewable energy sources with their stochastic nature have increased interest in the incorporation of energy storage systems (ESSs) for load frequency control function in isolated and/or interconnected electrical power systems. Among the existing ESSs technologies, the superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) has become favorable in several applications compared to the other existing ESSs. This chapter introduces the problem of frequency regulation in interconnected microgrid (MG) systems with their modeling for two-area power systems as a case study. Then, the various utilized devices and control methods in the interconnected MG for frequency regulation are introduced. Finally, a case study of some of the widely employed controllers is introduced. The various characteristics of renewable energy, loading, and SMES are considered in the presented results.
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6 Dynamic performance enhancement of power grids by coordinated operation of SMES and other control systems
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This chapter discusses the combined operation of SMES and other auxiliary devices in enhancing the dynamic performance of the power grid. Initially, the concept of HESSs has been discussed. The advantages of forming HESSs, different combinations of energy storage devices, and sharing their mutual advantages in improving the power grid dynamic stability have been discussed in the beginning of this chapter. Then the impact of combined operation of SMES-BESS, SMES-fuel cell, SMES-SVC, SMES-STATCOM, and finally SMES-FCL has been discussed one after another. These discussions involve the advantages of their combined operation, details about their structure, power electronics interface, primary control schemes, and DC-DC converter control schemes. Then the impact of these combinational operations on the power grid's dynamic stability during disturbance conditions has been analyzed. Power grid and microgrid test system models are developed in the MATLAB/Simulink software platform to carry out the analysis and detailed system responses have been provided at the end of the chapter.
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7 Artificial intelligent controllers for SMES for transient stability enhancement
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is an extensive area of computer science combined with robust data set concerned to represent human intelligence for building smart machines to solve complicated problems of various technological fields. The systems are enabled to perform logical and rational intelligence to think or make action like human. The modern systems that perform based on AI are autonomous vehicle, conversational bots, spam filters for e-mails, robo-advisors, recommendations engines like Netflix, and smart assistants like, Alexa, Siri.
To control a system, a designer developing a conventional control system creates a mathematical model of the system with some assumptions like time-invariance, linearity, etc. This model involves all the dynamics of the plant that influences its control. In case of developing an artificial intelligent controller (AIC) system, the AIC conceptually is modelled based on the behaviour of the system given as inputs. The designer does not require to know the internal dynamics of the system to be controlled. Therefore, designing AIC for very complex plant is possible.
In recent years, AICs are drawing the interest of researchers as the conventional mathematical controllers are not well suited with uncertain non-linear systems. By contrast, AIC can model the qualitative knowledge and reasoning processes of human intelligence without using accurate quantitative analyses. As a result, the controlling part of the system becomes advanced in operations.
An efficient controller of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is very important for solving various issues of power systems. Effectivity of SMES system in the power systems has been found in various areas like transient stability, voltage sag and swell, voltage stability, load frequency control, primary frequency stability during fault, solving the issues with renewable energy integration, etc. An appropriately designed AIC can enhance the performance of SMES to the pre-eminent level for different system parameters and instabilities.
This chapter deals with the design, operation and application of three AICs for controlling SMES operation in power grids. An overview is given on the controlling methods of these AICs. Based on their controlling methodology, design procedures of these AICs for SMES are explained. The design of AICs is primarily focused on the control of charging and discharging of SMES in response of deviation in variables in power grids. At the end of this chapter, a comparative case study is done by applying the three AICs separately to SMES with constant energy storage capacity and improving the stability of a wind generator-integrated power system.
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8 Cybersecurity issues in intelligent control-based SMES systems
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This chapter discusses the cybersecurity issues in intelligent control-based SMES systems. Initially, different cybersecurity issues in the power electronics-enabled power grid have been discussed. In this section, different intrusion sources, how they can penetrate in different stages of the power grid, how intelligent control system can be affected, etc. have been discussed. Furthermore, how the SIs and VSCs in modern power grid can be a source of cyberattacks have been discussed. Next section discussed about the cybersecurity issues in the primary controllers of the SMES. How cyberattacks can take place in the SMES via the control system have been discussed explicitly. The impact of cyberattack on the SMES on the rest of the systems has been discussed too. It has been discussed that the cyberattacks in the SMES control system set points can initiate the unnecessary charging and discharging operation of the SMES. Also, cyberattacks on the SMES can hamper the operation of the rest of the system and may initiate the DoS operation. Furthermore, later in this chapter, different cyberattack detection and mitigation techniques have been discussed. An overview of different detection and mitigation techniques in protecting the SIs from cyberattacks has been discussed. A comprehensive case study has been presented in a microgrid environment for different cyberattacks situations in the primary control system of the SMES. Finally, challenges and future directions of cyber secure SI-enabled ESS devices have been discussed later in the chapter.
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9 Outlook
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This book reports detailed design of various configuration aspects, analytical studies on various applications and controllers of SMES. Implementation of the advanced controller for SMES, the operational effect of SMES with advanced power electronic converters and the locational significance of SMES in a power grid or microgrid are very important concerns. However, SMES technology needs more attention and research towards commercialisation as it is an amalgamation of electrical, vacuum, mechanical, materialistic and cryogenic technologies. Therefore, continuation and rigorous research are required to overcome the issues of SMES in every aspect. Due to the high cost of superconducting conductors, it is very expensive to develop SMES coil, which is the main component of SMES system. Low-cost superconducting material with transport current at atmospheric temperature is the primary requirement of this system to do more experimental research, which leads this to commercialisation and solves all the issues of power grid as discussed in this book.
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Back Matter
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