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Please follow the links to view the publication.A computer storage matrix using ferromagnetic thin films
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0094
A new method for selecting a magnetic film storage element from a matrix of elements which exploits the coherent rotational mode of reversal is described. It is shown that, by using a film made of a newly developed alloy “Gyralloy I”, the reproducibility problems previously encountered can be solved. It is shown that the use of aluminium as substrate for the film enables the signal/noise ratio to be increased to an acceptable level even for very large stores; the drive power requirements are shown to be correspondingly reduced. Details are given of performance and construction of a storage device, which contains 50 words each of 50 bits.A new 600 cards per minute card reader
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0078
The requirements for the machine, and their fulfilment are discussed. The card transporting mechanism, including the method of feeding individual cards, and the novel stacking unit are discussed. Two systems of card sensing are described, one using photo-transistors, the other silicon photo-voltaic cells. The results of checks of card registration and the resulting card clocking system are given. The need to replace some relay logic with faster elements is discussed and some control functions mentioned.The design and applications of a general-purpose analogue computer
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1957.0005
The various factors influencing the design and construction of a general purpose analogue computer are considered in detail, with particular attention to the effects of finite amplifier gain, bandwidth and phase shift. It is shown that one of the most important design criteria is the gain-bandwidth product, and that the bandwidth must be much greater than is generally supposed if the computer is required to deal with lightly damped systems. A description is given of a computer designed for industrial and research applications, based on this analysis and embodying various novel features. The instrument is capable of both repetitive and “single-shot” operation, and can also deal with non-linear problems. A selection of problems chosen to illustrate the wide range of a computer of this kind is then presented. A number of little-known applications, such as the analysis of mathematical series and the construction of economic “models” are included as well as examples of more familiar uses for aircraft simulation and servomechanism design. An indication is given of the lines along which analogue computers may develop in the future, and of other possible applicationsA special-purpose analogue computer and its use in reactor engineering
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0029
This paper deals with the description and application of a reactor analogue computer. Reactor operational and training problems suitable for analogue computer solution are dealt with and present trends in design and application indicated.An equipment for automatically processing time multiplexed telemetry data
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0034
An equipment is described for processing magnetic tape recordings of frequency-modulated time-multiplexed telemetry data. Details are given of the way in which the input signals are derived and the method by which the recordings are made. The equipment produces two forms of output: analogue graphs on paper film and digital records on punched cards. The performance achieved and the methods of checking this performance are detailed.A gas-filled glow discharge character display tube
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0098
The construction of a gas-filled glow discharge display tube and its limiting operating conditions are discussed. A graphical method is described for determining the correct working point in a typical simple circuit. A number of circuits are described which show the application of the tube to typical counting systems with counting speeds ranging from a few cycles/second to 2 Mc/s. It is shown that, provided suitable precautions are taken, end of life can be predicted and failure in service is unlikely.An optical projection system for information data display
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0084
The paper discusses generally the desired characteristics of visual display devices and specifically describes a highly versatile, uniplanar, electro-optical rear projection-type information data display unit. The design of this unit features a plurality of optical systems, each with an independently activated light source, focused upon a common viewing screen. Each optical system may thus be used to display either alphanumeric, symbolic or word messages (complete or progressive), and/or colour information. The theory of operation, construction, operational characteristics and performance of the device are discussed.Radar simulators
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0002
The need for radar simulators for personnel training and evaluation purposes is discussed. The equipment must faithfully reproduce the characteristics of the target as well as of the radar, and the performance specification on the synthetic targets is laid down. Radar pulse widths and repetition rates present no problem. The necessity for a true antenna pattern function generator is considered in some detail. Various methods of analogue computation to determine the position of the targets are discussed. Two computing systems operating from 400 c/s supplies are described.Digital techniques for small computations
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1959.0005
A special digital method of computation of simple algebraic functions of 1 to 4 variables is described and analysed. The system is programmed by interconnection of units according to a block diagram formulation of the problem. The calculation speed is relatively low, but the logical design is very simple.Some reflections on digital computer design
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0067
The factors influencing computing machine development, during the past decade, are reviewed from the point of view of the circuit engineer. The effect of new components such as the transistor and rectangular-loop ferrite core and of the introduction of new techniques of manufacture are considered. The reduction of the influence of the circuit engineer in computer design, is forecast due to the trend towards packaged construction and the introduction of novel concepts in design.The electronic synthesis of flexible beam behaviour
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0017
The paper relates to the use of electronic analogue computers to evaluate and display the vibrations of flexible beams and related structures. The method is characterized by the speed and continuity with which the desired information is presented and by the fact that it provides a continous mental picture or model of the physical system being studied. The techniques described are applicable to “thin” beams in general and are capable of yielding static as well as dynamic information. They have, however, been evolved primarily to deal with problems in dynamics whose complexity makes them unsuitable for treatment by “classical” methods. A simple hypothesis concerning structural energy dissipation is discussed. It is shown to possess valuable practical advantages except where the detailed mechanism of structural energy loss is itself the subject of investigation. The essential correctness of the basic premises, and the practicability of realizing a useful synthetic “beam” have been demonstrated experimentally. Much further development remains to be completed however. The paper concludes with a review of certain directions in which progress is hoped for in the immediate future.Instrumentation at Berkeley nuclear power station
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0002
From the shut-down power of about 10 watts upwards neutron flux instrumentation is used for reactor power measurement and to operate safety trips. At high powers, control and protection is based on temperature measurements (fuel element, channel gas, graphite etc.). Selected fuel element temperatures can shut down the reactor, others being recorded by multi-point recorders and automatic loggers. The shut-down initiating devices shut down the reactor only if at least two out of the three give a trip signal. The system of faulty fuel element detection employs an automatic logger which computes averages, giving discrimination between random and significant rises in CO<sub xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">2</sub> gas activity. Equipment is also provided, for the detection of leaks between steam and CO<sub xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">2</sub> circuits; in addition radiation activity in and around the station is monitored. Gas and steam flows are measured and the data transmitted by a pneumatic system. The display equipment for the major instrumentation is centralized in or near the station control room.A decimal product accumulator
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0014
As a step towards a digital correlator, a machine has been built which accumulates the sum of products of pairs of numbers. This device can determine the correlation between two series of numbers, provided all terms in the series are positive. The arithmetic operations are performed by dekatrons. To minimize multiplication time each product is formed in an asynchronous cycle whose duration is governed by the value of the digits in the multiplier factor. The speed of the present model is limited by relays which control the programming cycle. Given pairs of numbers having two decimal digits each, the machine accumulates 100 products per minute.Data acquisition systems for control applications
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0125
The features of data acquisition systems are discussed. The advantages of modularity are stressed with particular reference to the interface concept. Basic system elements are described. Operations on data which can be carried out within the acquisition system are mentioned briefly.Discussion on “Radar simulators”
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0003
An analogue computer for Fourier transforms
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0022
The paper gives the basic principles of a computer for obtaining a graphical display of the Fourier transform of a function which can be represented by a finite number of ordinates over a finite range of the input variable. A delay line with linear phase-shift/frequency response is used to give the exponential term in the transform, and a time-variation of carrier frequency in sympathy with the time-base of the display unit gives the required variation of the index of this term.Data collection and distribution
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0047
The paper outlines the evolution of data handling and processing methods employed by a group of insurance companies in day-to day operation, culminating in the adoption of a fully integrated computer system. Field trials of a telex link using live data and subsequent extension of these trials are to embrace the use of high-speed transmission equipment described. A summary of the transmission errors encountered during the later trials is given together with the approximate comparative costs of a telex and high-speed system.High-speed printers
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0079
The distinction between serial and parallel printers and between stoppable and continuous running printers is drawn, and some of the features found in high-speed printers are discussed firstly as regards the document to be produced, and secondly as regards the inclusion of the printer in a data processing system. A comparison of on-line and off-line methods of connection follows. In the brief survey of printing principles used in high-speed printers, both mechanical and non-mechanical types are treated. A short section on checking is followed by comments on future trends in high-speed printers, including the possibility of re-entry.A self-indicating magnetic scaling system using electro-deposited nickel-iron film cores
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0008
The paper describes a method of application of electro deposited magnetic films with rectangular hysteresis loops in logical elements. One of the principal difficulties, that of getting sufficiently close coupling between the film and the associated driving and sense coils, has been overcome. The application of the films to counting or scaling circuits in particular is described. A visual indication of the count stored in such a circuit is obtained by making use of the external fields from the magnetic films. With the electrodeposition technique developed, the films can be deposited in five minutes and batches of several hundred cores have been made with saturation flux and coercive force uniform within ±10%.Print recognition apparatus for blind readers
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0078
The facilities offered both to designer and reader by the auditory and tactile types of reading machine are compared. Methods used for solving the problem of producing an electrical signal equivalent to each of a set of printed characters are discussed and some actual machines briefly described. The types of machine required by the blind and facilities to be given by the ultimate designs are set out. The problems of recognition of the electrical signal and storage and accessibility of the sound tracks in the auditory machine are discussed. Techniques required, some existent, others not yet available, are considered. Suggestions are offered as to the methods which may be ultimately used to solve some of the problems.A method of using a general-purpose computer in an on-line time sharing application
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0123
When a computer is coupled to a real time operation as in process control, the work load on the machine may fluctuate widely depending on operating conditions. External phenomena demanding action will occur essentially at random with respect to the machine. To cope with peak conditions the machine must be adequately fast, and thus will have idle time when activity is low. The use of time sharing techniques or more properly equipment sharing, allows the computer to utilize any idle time by having alternative jobs of lower priority, higher priority jobs having an interrupt facility on the machine. An engineering and programming method has been evolved of applying a computer to a process control system for on-line applications.The use of radar simulators in the Royal Navy
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0004
The paper describes a synthetic training system developed for the Royal Navy to provide a means of semi-realistic study of tactical problems involving ships and aircraft. The requirements of realism and accuracy necessary in such a trainer are considered and the paper goes on to describe the radar simulator on which the system is based, together with other circuits devised to satisfy these requirements. The particular system described has been developed to meet somewhat specialized requirements for the Royal Navy and details of the number of targets used, speed, height and radar range have been omitted for security reasons.A transistor thermocouple trip amplifier
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0003
The problem of protecting a nuclear reactor against excess temperature operation is reviewed and design requirements applicable to thermocouple trip amplifiers are discussed. Particular mention is made of features which render the unit fail-safe. It is concluded that a unit possessing the necessary fail-to-safety features may be manufactured using transistor techniques. The equipment may be made both reliable and compact and these features, supported by robust construction, fulfil the needs of first-line temperature protection on a nuclear power reactor.Toroidal transformers for an analogue system of machine tool control
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0008
The use of toroidal transformers makes possible analogue computing circuits with an accuracy of a few parts in a million. Among many applications the use of such circuits has proved of great value in the control of machine tools. Some details are given of the transformers and of design procedure, and the simulation of mathematical operations, such as multiplication and interpolation, is shown. A discussion follows of the design of the analogue circuits in a unit used to convert digital information to an analogue signal. Finally some results are quoted of accuracy tests on a system for a skin milling control, showing that during 1,184 readings taken under a wide variety of conditions of temperature and electrical supplies the total error on a 540 in. (13.7 m) axis only exceeded 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) on 0.42 per cent. of the measurements.Industrial data-reduction and analogue—digital conversion equipment
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1956.0066
Representative examples of specifications for data-reduction systems are presented and the data-reduction system considered as a tool which can meet the wide variety of practical requirements. The central elements of the system are analogue-digital converters which are described in detail. Existing and proposed installations are reviewed in two main groups: electro-mechanical and electro-optical devices, and pure electronic converters. Only the main features of the other maior elements of the system—input devices, programmers, alarm detectors and digital output devices—are discussed. The probable trend of future development is outlined.A directly-coupled serial adder designed for use in a digital differential analyser
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0030
A brief introduction to the technique of directly-coupled logical circuits is given together with basic logical circuit diagrams. It is proposed that for maximum economy and optimum operational reliability, a single type of transistor and a single value of resistor should be used throughout the equipment and that design reliability should be based on the probability of worst-case parameters not being exceeded. Practical designs based on the above theories are shown and limited reliability figures quoted.Statistical computers as applied to industrial control
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1954.0042
The need and use of statistical methods for quality control of a continuous industrial process is discussed and some examples of quality control based on statistical techniques, but employing a “human” controller described. The advantages and disadvantages of automatizing such control from the engineering, economic and social points of view are considered. The prime functions of statistical controller are discussed. An outline of some of the circuit techniques employed is given and two practical examples are quoted—one in the bakery industry and one in cable manufacture—of the application of automatic statistical control, with histograms, etc., showing improvements effected by the apparatus.Analogue computers and their use in nuclear reactor safety studies
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0010
Computational and circuit techniques are described which have been used successfully to study the various aspects of nuclear plant kinetics which are relevant to reactor safety. These include an examination of the overall stability of the system, the effects of coolant pump failure, burst steam lines and control rod maloperation. Particular reference is made to a revolving capacitance storage drum which simulates transport lags in coolant circuits.The application of analogue computing techniques to automatic spectrochemical analysis
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0081
The direct reading spectrometer has in recent years been widely adopted as an analytical tool in the manufacture of metallic alloys. So far the read-out of such instruments has normally been in arbitrary units and the concentrations of the constituent elements have had to be determined by referring the instrument output to graphs or tables. Various methods of converting measured intensities into actual concentration readings automatically have been devised, but have not gained wide acceptance in industrial circles, where reliability and simplicity are of great importance.This paper describes the development of a method which employs diode function generators to cater for the non-linearity of the calibration curve of the spectrometer and is considered to have high inherent reliability. Capacitor storage devices are used in auxiliary circuits to enable corrections to be made to the output for third element interference effects.Low-level high-speed data scanning systems
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0100
A high speed data handling system for a hypersonic wind tunnel is described. The system is made up of transistorized modular elements allowing system flexibility and the possibility of further extension to cover increased scanning requirements. The low level inputs to the system are commutated by dry reed relays having characteristics which yield a fast reliable scanning switch. The advantages and disadvantages of these and other switching systems are discussed. The output from the system is in the form of a magnetic tape record which allows great flexi bility in the subsequent processing operations.The reliability of an experimental transistorized data handling system
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0080
Factors which influence reliability of large systems are considered. The construction of the equipment itself is briefly described. The commissioning and maintenance of the equipment and details of the docket-return system used to provide information about the reliability of the components used are discussed. A system of written logic, sup planting conventional drawings, facilitates maintenance. Component failure rates calculated from the fault recording system are given and observations made regarding the reliability achieved and considered possible.Magnetic film file for computer storage
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0004
A 35-mm oxide-coated ifim store is described in which the pick-up head is out of contact with the oxide. The high quality backing medium provided by the film has resulted in complete freedom from drop outs. Interchangeability between all mechanisms has been achieved with available production heads, by using special auto-strobing circuits.The application of analogue computer techniques to the design of aero engine control systems
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1957.0063
The problem of aero engine control systems is shown to have reached the degree of complexity at the present time that makes it necessary to embark on analogue methods of simulation in order to predict the behaviour of the system. The parameters to be controlled are discussed and the way in which interaction may affect the individual loops is explained together with a review of the requirements of a control system from the pilot's handling, and the performance view points. As illustrations, examples of control system functional components are used to illustrate the methods of adaptation of a practical hydraulic system to analogue methods. The use of the computer results is discussed in formulating an optimum system design.A negative resistance for d.c. computers
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1959.0046
A d.c. negative resistance suitable for use in analogue computers is described. The circuit uses two transistors and eight resistances and is compensated against unbalance in the two transistors. A nomogram has been constructed to simplify the design of the circuit for any required value of negative resistance. There is also a discussion of the properties of, and the differences between series and shunt type of negative resistances. The circuit described gives a shunt type of negative resistance.Discussion on “Electronic computers”
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1953.0011
On optimum relations between circuit elements and logical symbols in the design of electronic calculators
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1952.0058
The paper deals first with the main units required in a high-speed calculator, this treatment being functional rather than engineering in character and designed to familiarize readers with the detailed discussion to follow. Some typical examples of units of a calculator are next examined and possible means of representing such units in terms of logical symbols discussed. The means by which such logical symbols can be transformed into engineering details are then considered, and it is shown that certain types of logical unit lead to great complexity of real circuit equivalents, whilst other types of symbol adapt themselves particularly well to engineering realities. The paper concludes with a description of a suggested logical notation for computer elements which is such that a small number of basic standard “building blocks” can be combined together to form units of any desired functional complexity with some assurance that the resulting whole will operate in a reliable manner.A cathode-ray tube output for a digital computer
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0065
The unit gives a visual display on one cathode-ray tube and has a second tube which is equipped with an automatic camera controlled directly by the computer. The device may be used for curve plotting with a resolution of 256 × 256 or for alpha-numeric display. In the latter case the computer can be programmed to display a variety of different formats and high output rates are possible.High-speed digital storage using cylindrical magnetic films
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0005
Digital stores consisting of closed magnetic circuits deposited on long glass tubes are described. These promise considerably increased operating speeds compared with present stores, together with the possibility of producing multi-element systems. A system designed to produce 30 tubes with 16 elements per tube in a single evaporation is now operating. Different selection modes which are more suitable for an array of this type have been tested, which permit greater tolerances than conventional selection systems.Intelligent knowledge-based systems
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jiere.1985.0072
After a brief historical survey of the subject, the paper describes, in general terms, the current state of expert system technology and then outlines the way in which a specific system operates. The limitations of these systems are touched upon and the future direction of research and applications in the field is suggested.Computing applications where analogue methods appear to be superior to digital
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1957.0043
In solving scientific engineering problems and design studies the first step consists of formulating the mathematical analogue of the problem which is to be studied. It is then a matter of convenience which means are employed to realize this mathematical model—analogue or digital. There are therefore no <i xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">a priori</i> reasons why either method is to be preferred and the choice will be dictated by the exigencies of the problem and the equipment in existence.Some advantages of analogue machines are quoted and three particular problems are studied for which analogue methods appear to be superior, namely the computation of non-linear heat flow, noise analysis, and the Monte Carlo method for solving neutron collision problems.Data collection systems, their application and design
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0124
A distinction is drawn between two types of data gathering systems. Possible applications for one of these, namely data collection systems, are discussed. The requirements of such systems are then outlined and two types of data collection system are described to indicate possible solutions to these requirements. The final section deals with the totalsystems approach and the effect it will have on future data collection systems.Discussion on “A decimal product accumulator”
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1958.0015
Factors influencing the applications of magnetic tape recording to digital computers
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0002
The merit of magnetic tape for storage of digital information and the benefits of abandoning linear in favour of two-state operation are briefly discussed. Limitations on the density of recorded information are reviewed to show the extreme precision called for in the manufacture of magnetic heads and tape guidance mechanisms. Design features made necessary by high speed and acceleration requirements are considered with reference to a recently developed high performance tape handler.Author's reply to the discussion on “Electronic computers”
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1953.0012
Electroluminescence and alpha-numeric indicators
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0087
The basic properties of electroluminescence are first discussed and the paper then describes the construction of “organic-on-glass” and “ceramic-on-metal” lamps. Typical performance figures for these lamps as given. A description of the various types of alpha-numeric indicators that have been proposed follows. In particular, the “8-bar” digital indicator, and its variants, is compared with other types not requiring coding. Types of alphabet indicator are also discussed.A transportation lag circuit for analogue computation
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0079
An analogue transportation lag based on the expansion is described. The unit uses <i xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">n</i> simple phase inverters in cascade, the time delay τ and maximum frequency of operation <i xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">f</i><sub xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">max</sub> being related by where <i xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">RC</i> is the phase-shifting time constant. By means of a simple cross-over unit and high gain d.c. amplifier the delay unit is designed to have extremely low drift. An example is shown which has a transportation lag of 32 ms and a maximum frequency of operation of 150 c/s.A magnetic disk, random access memory
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1960.0003
A large capacity, random access storage device is described which uses 50 rotating magnetic disks. Total storage capacity is 5×l0<sup xmlns="http://pub2web.metastore.ingenta.com/ns/">5</sup> alphanumeric characters with access time between 0.15 and 0.8 sec.High speed analogue-to-digital converters
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1957.0042
Some control and computing problems are discussed in which advantage may be gained by encoding analogue quantities into digital form for subsequent processing. A voltage-to-digital converter has been designed for use with an electronic analogue computer in order to combine analogue and digital computation techniques. The system is basically a servo with a digital-to-voltage converter as a non-linear feedback element. A binary register, driven from a 100 kc/s clock pulse, is operated by gates arranged to allow an increasing or decreasing count, dependent on the sign of the error between the voltage input to the converter and the voltage analogue of the number in the register. Functional descriptions of the main parts of the equipment are given, with reference to some of the factors that have been found to be critical. The apparatus is now working, but experience has shown that considerable increase in both speed and accuracy is possible, and modifications which would provide this improvement are described.An electro-mechanical indicator
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1961.0097
The principles of the construction and operation of the indi cator which employs an endless band driven by a stepping motor are described. Some details are given about the driving circuitry, including that developed for multiple driving of indicators in display boards.Some general features of digital data acquisition systems
http://dl-live.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/jbire.1962.0098
Digital data acquisition systems make use of a single measuring system to obtain data from many inputs and record the results for future use. Such systems usually accept analogue inputs and incorporate equipment for conversion to digital form. A typical system is described followed by details of the more novel techniques used in the major sub-units. The ways in which such systems are employed are also discussed.