A History of the World Semiconductor Industry
Development of the thermionic valve. Historical survey of early research in semiconductors. Development of the transistor. Major technical processes used in semiconductor device fabrication. Review of major factors affecting the growth of the United States semiconductor industry. Review of the factors affecting the growth of the Japanese and South Korean semiconductor industries. Review of the European semiconductor industry.
Inspec keywords: semiconductor industry; history; semiconductor device manufacture; transistors; thermionic tubes
Other keywords: transistor development; history; semiconductor industry; semiconductor device fabrication; thermionic valve
Subjects: History of science; Semiconductor materials and technology; Vacuum tubes
- Book DOI: 10.1049/PBHT012E
- Chapter DOI: 10.1049/PBHT012E
- ISBN: 9780863412271
- e-ISBN: 9781849194044
- Page count: 184
- Format: PDF
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Front Matter
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1 Introduction
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This book reviews the growth of semiconductor microelectronics within the principal nation-states currently possessing such an industry, and also includes an account of relevant inventions and discoveries assisting that growth.
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2 Development of the thermionic valve
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Compared with the situation immediately preceding the Second World War, the overall picture by 1945 was that of much greater diversification. Highly specialised, costly devices, capable of generating extremely high powers, existed at one end of the spectrum, and mass-produced low-cost miniature receiving valves at the other. It was in the latter area that semiconductor diodes had established themselves at the expense of the thermionic valve, as a detector of microwave frequencies. Later developments, involving the transistor, have since almost entirely replaced the vacuum tube as a low-power, low cost mass produced device. It has not however been possible to replace the specialised high-power high-frequency transmitting devices, such as the klystron, magnetron and travelling-wave tube by any solid-state equivalent.
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3 Historical survey of early research in semiconductors
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Before discussing the growth of the semiconductor industry, which rapidly increased in scale following the invention of a solid state amplifying device, it is useful to review the earliest technical developments leading up to that invention and without which such an event would have been, at least, highly improbable. Apart from an appreciation of the time scale involved, this survey may give some indication of how the accumulation of technical knowledge in this field progressed. A further intention of this approach is to indicate the major factors affecting that growth and, in addition, outline how an industry manufacturing semiconductor devices of a non-amplifying nature came to be established.
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4 Development of the transistor
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The development of the transistor may be conveniently considered to have occurred in two phases. Firstly, the decade 1952-1962 encompassed the period from the invention of the grown junction transistor to the advent of the planar process and was one of rapid technical transition. During this time, a wide variety of methods of construction followed each other in rapid succession. Furthermore, improvements in import ant electrical parameters such as reverse junction breakdown voltage, frequency response and power handling capacity established the transistor as a viable alternative to the thermionic valve, which, in spite of further miniaturisation, began to be replaced over an increasingly wide range of applications. A fundamentally important development which occurred was the replacement of germanium by silicon as the basic semiconductor material for device manufacture. This change was made principally because of the ability of silicon to operate over a much wider temperature range, this factor being of particular interest to the military. The introduction of the planar transistor towards the end of the decade gave a further stimulus to the use of silicon. This was because the planar process could not be adapted to the fabrication of germanium devices. The second phase began with the development of planar technology which established the basis for the development and manufacture of the integrated circuit, and already by the latter period of the decade was being used for the construction of both bipolar and field-effect transistors. It was at the end of this period, therefore, that the basic technology was developed upon which subsequent improvements in semiconductor manufacture have been made. What follows is an account of the major advances in device technology, starting with the grown junction transistor and leading to the development of the silicon integrated circuit. Next, a brief survey outlines further developments which have arisen as a consequence of the impact of the integrated circuit. The three final sections of this chapter consider the evolution of the small signal semiconductor diode, the power rectifier and the thyristor.
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5 Major technical processes used in semiconductor device fabrication
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This chapter contains a brief review of the technical processes essential to the fabrication of semiconductor devices. It is not intended as a technical treatise, but rather to give an outline of these major processes and consider their development within a historical framework which deal with the major non-technical aspects of the industry's growth. It should be remembered, however, that both technical and non-technical aspects of this growth are interrelated, and that this division is merely one of convenience.
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6 Review of major factors affecting the growth of the United States semiconductor industry
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This chapter first carries out a general review of the major factors affecting the growth of the United States semiconductor industry, and then proceeds to consider its more specific aspects. This has been done by dividing the material into a number of sections, each reviewing a particular characteristic of the industry's development. One important aspect, exhibiting strong distinguishing features when compared with parallel developments in Europe and Japan, is the way in which individual manufacturing companies have developed within the industry. Further sections in this chapter deal with structural, technical, social and geographical aspects of the industry. The object of this approach is to highlight factors peculiar to the US semiconductor industry in order to facilitate a comparison with the parallel growth of the semiconductor industry taking place in other countries. Finally, in view of the outstanding success of Texas Instruments Inc as the major producer of semiconductor devices over three decades, a brief historical survey of this company is included, in order to highlight possible factors contributing to its success.
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7 Review of the major factors affecting the growth of the Japanese and South Korean semiconductor industries
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This chapter deals principally with the growth and general characteristics of the Japanese semiconductor industry, the more recent and relatively less important South Korean industry being considered in somewhat less detail.
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8 Review of the European semiconductor industry
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This review of the major European national states shows that, compared with the situation in the USA and Japan, the developing Western European semiconductor industry has suffered significant disadvantages, namely a general lack of cohesion, each government pursuing a separate strategy with no attempt being made to work to a co-ordinated plan. Financial institutions have, in varying degrees, proved inadequate in providing sufficient financial support to enable a healthy industry to develop. The general weakness of the Western European semiconductor industry has been accentuated by strong foreign penetration of the home market, and this situation has been assisted by lack of a common response from Western European governments. With research and development facilities often underfunded and with relatively small investment within the important area of production development, a significant technical lag has remained a constant factor throughout the history of the industry. Like its Western European counterpart, the semiconductor industry in Eastern Europe is relatively weak when compared with that of the USA and Japan, although for different reasons. Confronted with a strategic trade embargo, and denied the dubious benefits of foreign economic penetration, a consistent technical lag has also been present, in spite of an early beginning in device manufacture. Owing to lack of information regarding funding of the Eastern European industry, it is impossible to assess the effect this factor may have had upon its development.
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9 Conclusions
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This chapter considers two different aspects of the work of the semiconductor manufacturing industry separately. Firstly, a discussion of the growth of the industry and its relationship to science and technology; and secondly, a consideration of economic factors, operating within a social and political framework, which have contributed to the manner in which the industry has developed within various nation states, and ending with a brief speculation regarding future possible developments.
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Appendix A: Glossary of commonly used terms in semiconductor technology
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This glossary is not intended to be comprehensive, but only to explain those terms commonly used when discussing the technology of semiconductors.
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Appendix B: Basic semiconductor junction theory
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In this appendix, a basic outline of the rectification and transistor operation processes, and a definition of terms is presented. Topics include: semiconductor materials, P- and N-type electronic semiconductors, and P-N junctions or junction diodes.
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Appendix C: Pattern of a typical semiconductor product cycle
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This appendix shows a graph of a typical semiconductor product cycle.
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Appendix D: Characteristics and applications of gallium arsenide
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The characteristics of GaAs are such that it performs well as a solar cell and light emitter, and its energy band structure makes possible transferred electron (Gunn) oscillations. Because of its high electron mobility and saturation drift velocity, this material offers distinct advantages in the field of high frequency operation. In the intrinsic state, it has a high resistivity at normal temperatures and therefore components made on an intrinsic substrate may not need an isolation diffusion. Also, owing to its greater energy bond gap than silicon, operation at higher temperatures is theoretically possible. Unfortunately, this material is difficult to process and therefore production costs are much higher than in the case of silicon, and this fact has certainly inhibited its much wider use in the past. One problem is that it does not grow an electrically stable oxide layer in the same way as silicon, since one element oxidises more rapidly than the other, leaving a metallic phase at the interface, thus rendering planar processing impossible. Since arsenic evaporates from the melt and the crystal above about 600°C, diffusion techniques cannot be used. Furthermore, gallium arsenide is difficult to dope and crystal defects tend to be higher than is the case for silicon. Consequently, techniques for fabricating devices from this material have taken much longer to develop than was the case for both silicon and germanium.
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Back Matter
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